Gastropods are gastropods. Mollusk shells: layers, structure, types 3 layers of mollusk shells

The structure of the shell varies among representatives of different groups.

Conchifera shell

Diagram of the structure of the shell margin of Conchifera. 1 - outer layer of periostracum; 2 - inner layer of periostracum; 3 - ostracum; 4 - hypostracum; 5 - mantle epithelium; 6 - periostracum gland; 7 - place of secretion of the inner part of the periostracum; 8 - place of ostracum secretion; 9 - place of secretion of the hypostracum

The shells of all Conchifera (classes Gastropoda, Cephalopoda, Bivalvia, Scaphopoda, Monoplacophora) are built, in general, according to the same pattern.
Initially, the shell consists of three layers:

• Periostracum- outer thin layer consisting exclusively of protein - conchiolin. In fact, it is represented by two layers tightly adjacent to each other.
• Ostracum- the middle layer of the shell, consists of crystalline prisms of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) wrapped in conchiolin. Its structure can be very diverse.
• Hypostracum or mother-of-pearl layer - the inner layer of the shell, consists of CaCO 3 plates, also wrapped in conchiolin.

Often, especially in highly organized gastropods, the nacreous layer is absent; but the ostracum in such cases can consist of many layers of different structures.

Calcium carbonate in the composition of mollusk shells can be in the form of three modifications:

• Aragonite - characteristic of the most ancient mollusks; The mother-of-pearl layer always consists only of aragonite.
• Calcite - apparently, this modification is a later acquisition of mollusks.
• Vaterite - used for reparation.

There are various combinations of aragonite and calcite in the shells of various mollusks.

The secretion of the shell is carried out by the mantle epithelium at its growing edge. At its base is the periostracum gland, which secretes the outer layer of the periostracum. Further along the mantle epithelium, the remaining layers of the shell are secreted sequentially.
In the space between the mantle epithelium and the periostracum (extrapolial cavity), the process of biomineralization occurs. It is carried out due to the constant pumping of Ca 2+ and HCO 3 ions and pumping out hydrogen ions. This creates a favorable environment for the formation of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3). In addition, mucopolysaccharides and proteins are secreted into the extrapolial cavity to form the conchiolin wrapper of calcium carbonate crystals.

Shell chitons

Scheme of the structure of the edge of the shell plate of chitons: 1 - periostracum; 2 - tegmentum; 3 - layer of living tissue; 4 - articulomentum; 5 - outer epithelium under the shell plate; 6 - aesthetes; 7 - cuticle; 8 - outer epithelium under the cuticle; 9 - place of secretion of periostracum.

In chitons (Polyplacophora), the shell is structured somewhat differently than in other classes of mollusks. It also has three layers:

• The periostracum is the outer layer and consists exclusively of conchiolin.
• Tegmentum - middle layer; consists mainly of conchiolin with a small admixture of calcium carbonate. Often pigmented.
• The articulomentum is the inner layer, consisting almost entirely of calcium carbonate.

The fundamental difference from other mollusks is that strands of living tissue pass through the shell. They are located on the border of the tegmentum and articulomentum. From them branching sensitive formations - aesthetes - go to the surface.

Shell reduction

Shell reduction is observed in almost all classes of mollusks.
Thus, in some chitons, the shell plates sink deep into the body and lose their upper layers: periostracum and tegmentum.
Also, immersion and reduction of the shell are characteristic of higher cephalopods - Dibranchia. And if in cuttlefish the internal shell carries a functional load (used to regulate buoyancy), then in squids and octopuses it is extremely rudimentary.
Among gastropods, independent shell reduction is observed in different groups: firstly, in pulmonate mollusks - among slugs (family Arionidae, Limacidae etc.) and, secondly, among opisthobranchs - in the suborders Nudibranchs, Pteropods, etc.

Shell morphology

Morphology of gastropod shells

The main parts distinguished from the shell of gastropod mollusks. Using the example of the shell of Charonia tritonis

It is customary to distinguish several elements in the structure of the shell of gastropod mollusks. Curl formed by the upper whorls of the shell. Last revolution sink opens mouth. The upper part of the curl ends top. It often reveals embryonic shell(protoconch). The seam- the boundary between two revolutions. The fused walls of the inner surface of the shell whorls form columella(central column). In some shells, the upper part of the whorls forms a so-called shoulder, which can be round, angular or sloping in shape. At the top of the whorl there may be seam platform, which is a flattened area located directly under the seam. The widest, middle part of the whorl is called periphery, and the lower part of the last whorl is called basis or base shells. The edges of the mouth are called the outer and inner lips. Its anterior and posterior edges can be extended into anterior (siphonal) and posterior processes. Near the inner lip of the mouth may be located navel- a depression through which the ventral part of the first whorl of the shell is visible.

The mouth of the shell in most gastropods is covered by an operculum (operculum, operculum). The operculum can be calcareous or horny and usually has a conical, rounded shape, in some species it is comma-shaped. Some gastropods (for example, cyprians, freshwater and terrestrial pulmonates) lack an operculum.

When identifying mollusks, shell proportions are often used, which are determined using special measurements.

Basic forms of gastropod shells

Shape of shells

The vast majority of shells are twisted to the right, they are called dexiotropic. However, there are also left-handed shells, which are called sinistral. If you look at the shell from the mouth, then in right-handed shells it is located on the right side, in left-handed ones it is located on the left.

Most gastropods have a shell, the whorls of which do not creep over each other, but only touch - such shells are called evolute. The same shells in which each new turn completely covers the previous ones are classified as involute or convolute. Involute shells are characteristic of Cypras, Trivias and some other genera of gastropods. Convoluted shells are distinguished by the fact that the last whorl hides all previous ones, and they have a spindle-shaped shape from the mouth side. In this part they are more elongated, the siphonal and posterior canals are easily distinguishable against the background of the large outer lip and the smaller penultimate whorl. Such shells are characteristic of ovula and volva. Shells that resemble a spiral, the whorls of which are not closed together, but are twisted many times in different directions, are called devolute, or untwisted.

The mouth of the shell can be round, oval, oblong, semicircular; narrow or wide. The internal whorls of the shell grow together to form inner column or columella. In a number of species, the internal canal of the columella opens outwards at the base of the shell into an opening called the umbilicus. This morphological feature occurs in mollusks of the genus Natica. The inner lip of the mouth can be wide, narrow, everted, and also contain teeth. Sometimes this lip may have a thickened layer of enamel called callus.

The outer lip of the mouth has a variety of morphological variants. For example, the last axial ridges, ribs and plates border the mouth of the murex shell, often resembling the shape of fish fins. All members of the family Strombidae have a special recess in the lower part of the outer lip of the mouth, which allows the mollusks to look around without protruding their visual organs from the shell. Also, some representatives of this family have shells with a wide, bent outer lip. Representatives of the genus Lambis have numerous curved outgrowths of the outer lip of the shell mouth.

Murex pecten shell

At the lower part of the mouth of the shells of some gastropods there is a groove-shaped or closed siphonal outgrowth, which in the latter case contains a siphonal canal, which opens with a hole at the end of the outgrowth.

Cones and cypriae have peculiar shells. This led to the emergence of specific terms that describe certain structural features of these shells. In cypre shells, it is customary to distinguish between the dorsal (upper), basal (lower) surfaces, as well as the basal (lateral) edge and the middle platform. Cones have a base (base), on which spots may occur, a body, and an apex, which can be smooth or have a circular row of denticles.

Sculpture

The sculpture of gastropod shells can be superficial (in which case it is called microsculpture) or a true sculpture formed by the deeper layers of the shell. Examples of microsculpture are scales, tubercles, or spiral grooves. Real sculpture comes in the form of keels, ribs, ribs, ridges and plates. Sometimes the latter can be high, low, wing-shaped. The tall, wavy ridges and plates of some murexes are commonly called varixes. In the case of a vertical arrangement, the sculptural formations are called axial, in the case of a transverse arrangement - spiral. In some cases they talk about diagonal sculpture.

Coloring

The overall color of the shell can be plain, spotted, striped or complex, patterned. In some species, the spots on the shell may be indistinct, blurry, in others they stand out in contrast against the general background of the shell, taking on an oval, triangular or square shape, which may be a species characteristic. The stripes, depending on their location, are divided into axial, in the case of a vertical arrangement, spiral, in the case of a horizontal arrangement, diagonal and zigzag. The shells of some species of gastropods are surprisingly complex in color. Each shell within one species has its own unique, but common, pattern. For some patterns there are special definitions. Thus, a light spot on the dorsal surface of cypre shells is often called a window, round spots with contrasting inclusions are called ocelli, and thin calligraphic lines that form a picturesque cascade of triangles of different sizes and decorate the shells of some types of cones are called a scaly pattern.

Morphology of bivalve shells

Internal structure of the left shell of bivalve mollusks

Bivalves- bilaterally symmetrical animals whose body is located in a shell consisting of a left (upper) and right (lower) valve. A more or less convex rounded tubercle on the upper part of the dorsal surface of the valve is called crown. In equilateral shells, the crown occupies a middle position, while in most unequilateral shells it is shifted forward or backward. A number of species, for example scallops, spondylus, have flat triangular outgrowths called ears on the sides of the crown.

The shell valves are connected to each other by an elastic ligament located on the dorsal surface behind the tops. The shell lock, found in most mollusks of this class, is represented by teeth and grooves on the locking platform. Each tooth of one valve corresponds to the notch of the other, ensuring reliable articulation of the closed shell valves.

On the inner surface of the valves there are rounded imprints of the adductor muscles (closers). There may be two or one. Between them there is a thin and wavy mantle line that runs along the edge of the valve. In species with well-developed siphons, in the posterior part of the shell this line, limiting the mantle sinus, makes a bend.

A number of bivalves have shells with valves that vary in size, color, or even shape. These are, for example, oysters, some scallops and spondyli. Often a deeper and lighter lower flap is complemented by a flat and brightly colored upper flap.

Royal spondylus shell

Shape of shells

The shape of the valves varies greatly among different species. Most bivalves have an oval or triangular shell. There are also mollusks with rectangular, disc-shaped, wedge-shaped and trapezoidal valve shapes.

Sculpture

The outer surface of the valves can be smooth or sculptured. There is a distinction between microsculpture and real sculpture. Microsculpture (setae, grooves, wrinkles) is formed on the surface of the periostracum, while real sculpture (ribs, carinae, spines) is formed by the deeper, prismatic layers of the shell. When concentric ribs intersect with radial ribs equal in width and height, a network-like texture is formed. Small scales on the surface of the valves can be flat or convex. They cover a smooth surface or are located on the ribs. Large scales can be arranged in rows, giving the latter the appearance of steps, or wrapped in long tubes on the surface of the shells.

Coloring

The general color of bivalve mollusk shells can be predominantly monochromatic, spotted, with various lines and patterns. Thin or wide radial lines are called rays, concentric lines are called stripes. The lines can be wavy, zigzag, branching, or form intricate patterns such as diamonds, triangles, and crosses.

Morphology of cephalopod shells

The shell of cephalopods is initially a conical tube, straight or bent, in the living chamber of which a soft body is located, and the back part serves as a hydrostatic apparatus. The acquisition of planospiral folding by the shell is an adaptive mechanism, which gave them the opportunity to place the center of gravity and buoyancy along the same vertical, or even at one point (in Nautilus the discrepancy between these centers is about 2 mm). This, in turn, requires a minimum of effort from the animal to acquire any necessary position in the water.

Cephalopods with spirally coiled shells first appeared in the Early Ordovician (order Tarphycerida) and were scarce for a long time. Starting from the Devonian (with the appearance of the order Nautilida and ammonoids), they became prevalent. This type of shell arose independently in at least three large independent phylogenetic branches. In the Lower Carboniferous, the first representatives of higher cephalopods arose, in which the shell was gradually reduced and found itself enclosed inside the soft tissues of the body.

Chiton shell ( Acanthopleura spinosa)

Morphology of chiton shells

The shell of chitons consists of eight plates that are independently formed during embryogenesis. The plates are located sequentially along the anterior-posterior axis of the body. The first and last plates differ from the others in shape.
The middle six plates are shaped like a rhombus. In addition, they have two pairs of processes: anterior (apophyses) and posterior (lateral insertion plates), which are immersed in the epithelium and consist exclusively of the articulomentum.

Geological significance

Shell limestone with bivalve shells

Accumulations of mollusk shells play an important role in the formation of some types of bottom sediments and sedimentary rocks, especially shells

There are five main classes of mollusks: bivalves, gastropods, testapods, spadepods and cephalopods. Representatives of each of them have their own characteristic type of shell.

The shells of all Conchifera (classes Gastropoda, Cephalopoda, Bivalvia, Scaphopoda, Monoplacophora) are built, in general, according to the same scheme.

Initially, the shell consists of three layers:

Periostracum is the outer thin layer consisting exclusively of protein - the organic substance concholin. In fact, it is represented by two layers tightly adjacent to each other. It is close in composition to horn or hair. In most species it wears off quickly, in some, on the contrary, it is durable, and sometimes even forms a fleecy, felt-like layer. Under the organic layer there are two mineral layers of calcium carbonate in the form of plate-like crystals of calcite and aragonite. In the outer mineral layer, the ostracum, the crystals are oriented perpendicular to the surface of the shell; in texture, this layer resembles porcelain, but has nothing to do with real porcelain.

The ostracum is the middle layer of the shell and consists of crystalline prisms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) wrapped in conchiolin. Its structure can be very diverse.

Hypostracum or mother-of-pearl layer - the inner layer of the shell, consists of CaCO3 plates, also wrapped in conchiolin. Often, especially in highly organized gastropods, the nacreous layer is absent; but the ostracum in such cases can consist of many layers of different structures. The hypostracum is adjacent to the living tissue of the mantle; in it, mineral plates are laid in light waves parallel to the surface. The refraction of light on these plates creates a mother-of-pearl effect, and the colors of mother-of-pearl - greenish, bluish, pinkish - depend on the admixture of organic substances, including pigments obtained by the mollusk from food.

While as the shell grows, the ostracum (middle layer) grows only along its edge, the inner layer (hypostracum) also grows in thickness, causing an increase in the thickness of the shell itself as the mollusk grows.

In chitons (Polyplacophora), the shell is structured somewhat differently than in other classes of mollusks. It also has three layers:

The periostracum is the outer layer and consists exclusively of conchiolin.

Tegmentum - middle layer; consists mainly of conchiolin with a small admixture of calcium carbonate. Often pigmented. Articulomentum - inner layer , consists almost entirely of calcium carbonate. The fundamental difference from other mollusks is that strands of living tissue pass through the shell. They are located on the border of the tegmentum and articulomentum. From them branching sensitive formations - aesthetes - go to the surface.

Although the shell of a mollusk itself is a lifeless formation (a product of the secretion of living cells of the mantle), its structure very clearly reflects many biological features that characterize the life of these organisms.

On an empty shell, the valves always take a half-open position due to the tension of the elastic ligament connecting them. The ligament of a living shell operates in the same way: the valves open slightly without any effort on its part and remain in this position while the shell, with the help of its leg, calmly holds in place or moves slowly along the bottom.

But in order to close the shell tightly, the shells have to use force, contracting their closing muscles - the anterior and posterior ones, attached at their ends to both shell flaps (traces of their attachment are clearly visible in the form of dull round spots on the inner surface of the shell, at the anterior and posterior ends of each doors).

On the shell valves it is easy to find the most convex and at the same time the oldest part of it - the apex, or top, and the arched stripes of annual growth running one after the other. The formation of these stripes depends on the fact that the growth of the shell slows down greatly in cold winter time, and with the onset of heat it intensifies (compare with the growth rings of wood). Our shells live up to 12–14 years.

Each shell shell consists of three layers:

1. Outer dark-colored organic layer resembling horny substance;
2. A porcelain-like layer, actually consisting of lime (mainly CaCO 3), and
3. The mother-of-pearl layer, which also consists of lime, is deposited here in the thinnest layers. As a result of this structure, the mother-of-pearl layer casts rainbow colors (just as the thinnest walls of soap bubbles or oil stains spilled in a thin film on the surface of water cast all the colors of the rainbow).

Further, examining the shell valves, one can see, firstly, that the oldest parts of the shell are at the same time thicker-walled, and the youngest growth strip, forming the very edge of the shell, turns out to be the thinnest.

Secondly, on larger, that is, older, shells and on their tops, the dark, organic layer is often destroyed during the life of the mollusk, exposing a white porcelain-like layer. All this depends on the fact that the organic layer is formed only by the outer edge of the mantle, that is, only on the youngest strip of annual growth, and lime is released by the entire blade of the mantle, which is why the calcareous shell becomes thicker and more durable every year.

Sometimes small bumps are visible on the smooth surface of mother-of-pearl. This means that here some grain of sand got stuck between the living cells of the mantle and the shell and the mantle enveloped it with a layer of mother-of-pearl.

In our ordinary shells, the layer of mother-of-pearl is thin and such tubercles remain very small. But in those bivalves in which nacre forms a thick layer, such tubercles turn into very large beautiful pearls (hence the name “pearl pearl”), or pearls that are used for various jewelry.

In the shells of various mollusks.

The secretion of the shell is carried out by the mantle epithelium at its growing edge. At its base is the periostracum gland, which secretes the outer layer of the periostracum. Further along the mantle epithelium, the remaining layers of the shell are secreted sequentially.
In the space between the mantle epithelium and the periostracum (extrapolial cavity), the process of biomineralization occurs. It is carried out due to the constant pumping of Ca 2+ and HCO 3 ions and pumping out hydrogen ions. This creates a favorable environment for the formation of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3). In addition, mucopolysaccharides and proteins are secreted into the extrapolial cavity to form the conchiolin wrapper of calcium carbonate crystals.

Shell chitons

Shell morphology

Morphology of gastropod shells

It is customary to distinguish several elements in the structure of the shell of gastropod mollusks. Curl formed by the upper whorls of the shell. Last revolution sink opens mouth. The upper part of the curl ends top. It often reveals embryonic shell(protoconch). The seam- the boundary between two revolutions. The fused walls of the inner surface of the shell whorls form columella(central column). In some shells, the upper part of the whorls forms a so-called shoulder, which can be round, angular or sloping in shape. At the top of the whorl there may be seam platform, which is a flattened area located directly under the seam. The widest, middle part of the whorl is called periphery, and the lower part of the last whorl is called basis or base shells. The edges of the mouth are called the outer and inner lips. Its anterior and posterior edges can be extended into anterior (siphonal) and posterior processes. Near the inner lip of the mouth may be located navel- a depression through which the ventral part of the first whorl of the shell is visible.

The mouth of the shell in most gastropods is covered by an operculum (operculum, operculum). The operculum can be calcareous or horny and usually has a conical, rounded shape, in some species it is comma-shaped. Some gastropods (for example, cyprians, freshwater and terrestrial pulmonates) lack an operculum.

When identifying mollusks, shell proportions are often used, which are determined using special measurements.

Shape of shells

Clam shells and humans

Use of shells

In some areas, shells served as money - for example, cowries on the islands of Oceania.

Shells in art

Renaissance artists often depicted large shells in their paintings. An example is paintings that describe a mythological plot - the birth of Venus. In the famous painting by Sandro Botticelli, Venus is depicted standing on a huge scallop shell, which was her symbol (see Aphrodite Anadyomene).

In a painting by 20th-century artist William Bouguereau, shells double as a musical instrument.

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Notes

Literature

• Moskovskaya N. Shells of the world. History, collecting, art. - M.: Aquarium-Print, Harvest, 2007. - 256 p. - ISBN 978-5-98435-602-2.

see also

Exoskeleton Endoskeleton Hydroskeleton see also

An excerpt characterizing a mollusk shell

“She’s not entirely healthy,” said Mlle Bourienne, smiling cheerfully, “she won’t come out.” This is so understandable in her situation.
- Hm! hmm! ugh! ugh! - said the prince and sat down at the table.
The plate did not seem clean to him; he pointed to the spot and threw it. Tikhon picked it up and handed it to the barman. The little princess was not unwell; but she was so insurmountably afraid of the prince that, having heard how out of sorts he was, she decided not to go out.
“I’m afraid for the child,” she said to m lle Bourienne, “God knows what can happen from fright.”
In general, the little princess lived in Bald Mountains constantly under a feeling of fear and antipathy towards the old prince, which she was not aware of, because fear was so dominant that she could not feel it. There was also antipathy on the part of the prince, but it was drowned out by contempt. The princess, having settled down in the Bald Mountains, especially fell in love with m lle Bourienne, spent her days with her, asked her to spend the night with her, and often talked to her about her father-in-law and judged him.
“Il nous arrive du monde, mon prince,” said M lle Bourienne, unrolling a white napkin with her pink hands. “Son excellence le prince Kouraguine avec son fils, a ce que j"ai entendu dire? [His Excellency Prince Kuragin with his son, how much have I heard?],” she said questioningly.
“Hm... this boy of excellence... I assigned him to the college,” the prince said offended. “Why son, I can’t understand.” Princess Lizaveta Karlovna and Princess Marya may know; I don’t know why he’s bringing this son here. I don't need it. – And he looked at his blushing daughter.
- Unwell, or what? Out of fear of the minister, as that idiot Alpatych said today.
- No, mon pere. [father.]
No matter how unsuccessfully M lle Bourienne found herself on the subject of conversation, she did not stop and chatted about greenhouses, about the beauty of a new blossoming flower, and the prince softened after the soup.
After dinner he went to his daughter-in-law. The little princess sat at a small table and chatted with Masha, the maid. She turned pale when she saw her father-in-law.
The little princess has changed a lot. She was more bad than good now. The cheeks sank, the lip rose upward, the eyes were drawn downwards.
“Yes, it’s some kind of heaviness,” she answered when the prince asked what she felt.
- Do you need anything?
- No, merci, mon pere. [Thank you, father.]
- Well, okay, okay.
He went out and walked to the waitress. Alpatych stood in the waiter's room with his head bowed.
– Is the road blocked?
- Zakidana, your Excellency; Forgive me, for God's sake, for one stupidity.
The prince interrupted him and laughed his unnatural laugh.
- Well, okay, okay.
He extended his hand, which Alpatych kissed, and walked into the office.
In the evening Prince Vasily arrived. He was met at the prespekt (that's the name of the avenue) by coachmen and waiters, who shouted and drove his carts and sleighs to the outbuilding along a road deliberately covered with snow.
Prince Vasily and Anatoly were given separate rooms.
Anatole sat, having taken off his doublet and resting his hands on his hips, in front of the table, at the corner of which he, smiling, fixed his beautiful large eyes intently and absent-mindedly. He looked upon his entire life as a continuous amusement that someone like that for some reason had undertaken to arrange for him. Now he looked at his trip to the evil old man and the rich ugly heiress in the same way. All this could have turned out, he supposed, very well and funny. Why not marry if she is very rich? It never interferes, Anatole thought.
He shaved, perfumed himself with care and panache, which had become his habit, and with his innate good-natured, victorious expression, holding his handsome head high, he entered his father’s room. Two valets were busy around Prince Vasily, dressing him; He himself looked around animatedly and nodded cheerfully to his son as he entered, as if he were saying: “So, that’s exactly what I need you for!”
- No, no joke, father, is she very ugly? A? – he asked, as if continuing a conversation he had had more than once during the trip.
- That's enough. Nonsense! The main thing is to try to be respectful and reasonable with the old prince.
“If he scolds, I’ll leave,” said Anatole. “I can’t stand these old people.” A?
– Remember that everything depends on this for you.
At this time, the arrival of the minister with his son was not only known in the maiden's room, but the appearance of both of them was already described in detail. Princess Marya sat alone in her room and tried in vain to overcome her inner agitation.
“Why did they write, why did Lisa tell me about this? After all, this cannot be! - she said to herself, looking in the mirror. - How do I get out into the living room? Even if I liked him, I couldn’t be on my own with him now.” The thought of her father's gaze terrified her.
The little princess and m lle Bourienne had already received all the necessary information from the maid Masha about what a ruddy, black-browed handsome minister's son was, and about how daddy dragged them with force to the stairs, and he, like an eagle, walking three steps at a time, ran after him. Having received this information, the little princess and M lle Bourienne, still audible from the corridor in their animated voices, entered the princess’s room.
– Ils sont arrives, Marieie, [They arrived, Marie,] do you know? - said the little princess, wobbling her belly and sitting heavily on the chair.
She was no longer in the blouse in which she had sat in the morning, but she was wearing one of her best dresses; her head was carefully adorned, and there was a liveliness on her face, which, however, did not hide the drooping and deadened contours of her face. In the attire in which she usually wore to social gatherings in St. Petersburg, it was even more noticeable how much she had looked worse. M lle Bourienne also unnoticed some improvement in her outfit, which made her pretty, fresh face even more attractive.
– Eh bien, et vous restez comme vous etes, chere princesse? – she spoke. – On va venir annoncer, que ces messieurs sont au salon; il faudra descendre, et vous ne faites pas un petit brin de toilette! [Well, are you still wearing what you were wearing, princess? Now they will come to say that they are out. We’ll have to go downstairs, but at least you’ll dress up a little!]
The little princess rose from her chair, called the maid and hastily and cheerfully began to come up with an outfit for Princess Marya and put it into execution. Princess Marya felt insulted in her sense of self-worth by the fact that the arrival of her promised groom worried her, and she was even more insulted by the fact that both of her friends did not even imagine that it could be otherwise. To tell them how ashamed she was for herself and for them was to betray her anxiety; Moreover, to refuse the outfit that was offered to her would have led to lengthy jokes and insistence. She flushed, her beautiful eyes went out, her face became covered with spots, and with that ugly expression of victim that most often settled on her face, she surrendered to the power of m lle Bourienne and Lisa. Both women cared quite sincerely about making her beautiful. She was so bad that not one of them could think of competing with her; therefore, quite sincerely, with that naive and firm conviction of women that an outfit can make a face beautiful, they set about dressing her.
“No, really, ma bonne amie, [my good friend], this dress is not good,” said Lisa, looking sideways at the princess from afar. - Tell me to serve, you have masaka there. Right! Well, this may be the fate of life is being decided. And this is too light, not good, no, not good!
It was not the dress that was bad, but the face and the whole figure of the princess, but M lle Bourienne and the little princess did not feel this; It seemed to them that if they put a blue ribbon on their hair combed up, and pulled down a blue scarf from a brown dress, etc., then everything would be fine. They forgot that the frightened face and figure could not be changed, and therefore, no matter how they modified the frame and decoration of this face, the face itself remained pitiful and ugly. After two or three changes, to which Princess Marya obediently submitted, the minute she was combed up (a hairstyle that completely changed and spoiled her face), in a blue scarf and an elegant dress, the little princess walked around her a couple of times, with her small hand she straightened a fold of her dress here, tugged at a scarf there and looked, bowing her head, now from this side, now from the other.
“No, that’s impossible,” she said decisively, clasping her hands. – Non, Marie, decidement ca ne vous va pas. Je vous aime mieux dans votre petite robe grise de tous les jours. Non, de grace, faites cela pour moi. [No, Marie, this definitely doesn’t suit you. I love you better in your gray everyday dress: please do this for me.] Katya,” she said to the maid, “bring the princess a gray dress, and see, m lle Bourienne, how I will arrange it,” she said with a smile of artistic anticipation joy.
But when Katya brought the required dress, Princess Marya sat motionless in front of the mirror, looking at her face, and in the mirror she saw that there were tears in her eyes and that her mouth was trembling, preparing to sob.
“Voyons, chere princesse,” said M lle Bourienne, “encore un petit effort.” [Well, princess, just a little more effort.]
The little princess, taking the dress from the maid’s hands, approached Princess Marya.
“No, now we’ll do it simply, sweetly,” she said.
The voices of her, M lle Bourienne and Katya, who laughed about something, merged into a cheerful babbling, similar to the singing of birds.
“Non, laissez moi, [No, leave me,” said the princess.
And her voice sounded with such seriousness and suffering that the babbling of the birds immediately fell silent. They looked at the large, beautiful eyes, full of tears and thoughts, clearly and pleadingly looking at them, and realized that it was useless and even cruel to insist.
“Au moins changez de coiffure,” said the little princess. “Je vous disais,” she said reproachfully, turning to M lle Bourienne, “Marie a une de ces figures, auxquelles ce genre de coiffure ne va pas du tout.” Mais du tout, du tout. Changez de grace. [At least change your hairstyle. Marie has one of those faces that doesn’t suit this type of hairstyle at all. Change it please.]
“Laissez moi, laissez moi, tout ca m"est parfaitement egal, [Leave me, I don’t care," answered the voice, barely holding back tears.
M lle Bourienne and the little princess had to admit to themselves that the princess. Marya looked very bad in this form, worse than always; but it was already too late. She looked at them with that expression that they knew, an expression of thought and sadness. This expression did not instill fear in them towards Princess Marya. (She did not instill this feeling in anyone.) But they knew that when this expression appeared on her face, she was silent and unshakable in her decisions.
“Vous changerez, n"est ce pas? [You will change, won’t you?] - said Lisa, and when Princess Marya did not answer anything, Lisa left the room.
Princess Marya was left alone. She did not fulfill Lisa’s wishes and not only did not change her hairstyle, but also did not look at herself in the mirror. She, powerlessly lowering her eyes and hands, sat silently and thought. She imagined a husband, a man, a strong, dominant and incomprehensibly attractive creature, suddenly transporting her into his own, completely different, happy world. Her child, the same as she had seen yesterday with the nurse’s daughter, appeared to her at her own breast. The husband stands and looks tenderly at her and the child. “But no, this is impossible: I’m too bad,” she thought.
- Please come to tea. The prince will come out now,” the maid’s voice said from behind the door.
She woke up and was horrified by what she was thinking. And before going down, she stood up, entered the image and, looking at the black face of the large image of the Savior illuminated by the lamp, stood in front of it with her hands folded for several minutes. There was a painful doubt in the soul of Princess Marya. Is the joy of love, earthly love for a man possible for her? In her thoughts about marriage, Princess Mary dreamed of family happiness and children, but her main, strongest and hidden dream was earthly love. The feeling was the stronger the more she tried to hide it from others and even from herself. “My God,” she said, “how can I suppress these thoughts of the devil in my heart? How can I renounce evil thoughts forever, so as to calmly fulfill Your will? And as soon as she made this question, God already answered her in her own heart: “Do not desire anything for yourself; don't search, don't worry, don't envy. The future of people and your destiny should be unknown to you; but live in such a way that you are ready for anything. If God pleases to test you in the responsibilities of marriage, be ready to do His will.” With this calming thought (but still with the hope of fulfilling her forbidden, earthly dream), Princess Marya, sighing, crossed herself and went downstairs, not thinking about her dress, or her hairstyle, or how she would enter and what she would say. What could all this mean in comparison with the predestination of God, without whose will not a single hair will fall from a human head?

When Princess Marya entered the room, Prince Vasily and his son were already in the living room, talking with the little princess and m lle Bourienne. When she entered with her heavy gait, stepping on her heels, the men and m lle Bourienne rose, and the little princess, pointing to her to the men, said: Voila Marie! [Here is Marie!] Princess Marya saw everyone and saw them in detail. She saw the face of Prince Vasily, who stopped seriously for a moment at the sight of the princess and immediately smiled, and the face of the little princess, who read with curiosity on the faces of the guests the impression that Marie would make on them. She also saw M lle Bourienne with her ribbon and beautiful face and her gaze, more animated than ever, fixed on him; but she could not see him, she only saw something large, bright and beautiful, moving towards her when she entered the room. First, Prince Vasily approached her, and she kissed the bald head bending over her hand, and answered his words that she, on the contrary, remembered him very well. Then Anatole approached her. She still hasn't seen him. She only felt a gentle hand take her firmly and lightly touched her white forehead, above which her beautiful brown hair was anointed. When she looked at him, his beauty struck her. Anatop, with the thumb of his right hand behind the buttoned button of his uniform, with his chest arched forward and his back arched back, swinging one outstretched leg and slightly bowing his head, silently, cheerfully looked at the princess, apparently not thinking about her at all. Anatole was not resourceful, not quick and not eloquent in conversations, but he had the ability of calm and unchangeable confidence, precious for the world. If a person who is not self-confident is silent at the first acquaintance and shows an awareness of the indecency of this silence and a desire to find something, and it will not be good; but Anatole was silent, shaking his leg, cheerfully observing the princess’s hairstyle. It was clear that he could remain silent so calmly for a very long time. “If anyone finds this silence awkward, then talk, but I don’t want to,” his appearance seemed to say. In addition, in dealing with women, Anatole had that manner that most of all inspires curiosity, fear and even love in women - a manner of contemptuous consciousness of his superiority. It was as if he was telling them with his appearance: “I know you, I know you, but why bother with you? And you would be glad!” It may be that he did not think this when meeting women (and it is even likely that he did not, because he did not think much at all), but that was his appearance and such a manner. The princess felt this and, as if wanting to show him that she did not dare think about keeping him busy, turned to the old prince. The conversation was general and lively, thanks to the little voice and the sponge with a mustache that rose above the white teeth of the little princess. She met Prince Vasily with that method of joking, which is often used by talkatively cheerful people and which consists in the fact that some long-established jokes and funny, partly not known to everyone, funny memories are assumed between the person who is being treated like that and oneself, then as there are no such memories, just as there were none between the little princess and Prince Vasily. Prince Vasily willingly succumbed to this tone; The little princess involved Anatole, whom she hardly knew, in this memory of funny incidents that had never happened. M lle Bourienne also shared these common memories, and even Princess Marya felt with pleasure that she was drawn into this cheerful memory.
“At least now we’ll make full use of you, dear prince,” said the little princess, in French, of course, to Prince Vasily, “it’s not like at our evenings at Annette’s, where you always run away; remember cette chere Annette? [dear Annette?]
- Oh, you can’t talk to me about politics like Annette!
– What about our tea table?
- Oh yeah!
- Why have you never been to Annette? – the little princess asked Anatole. “And I know, I know,” she said with a wink, “your brother Ippolit told me about your affairs.” - ABOUT! “She shook her finger at him. - Even in Paris I know your pranks!
- And he, Hippolytus, didn’t tell you? - said Prince Vasily (turning to his son and grabbing the princess by the hand, as if she wanted to run away, and he barely had time to hold her), - but he didn’t tell you how he himself, Hippolyte, wasted away for the dear princess and how she le mettait a la porte? [kicked him out of the house?]
- Oh! C "est la perle des femmes, princesse! [Ah! this is the pearl of women, princesse!] - he turned to the princess.
For her part, m lle Bourienne did not miss the opportunity, when she heard the word Paris, to also enter into a general conversation of memories. She allowed herself to ask how long ago Anatole left Paris, and how he liked this city. Anatole very willingly answered the Frenchwoman and, smiling, looking at her, talked to her about her fatherland. Having seen the pretty Bourienne, Anatole decided that here, in Bald Mountains, it would not be boring. “Very pretty! - he thought, looking at her, - this demoiselle de compagn is very pretty. [companion.] I hope she will take it with her when she marries me,” he thought, “la petite est gentille.” [little one is cute.]

The content of the article

SINK, the hard coverings of the body of some animals, such as snails, bivalves or barnacles. Of greatest interest, especially from the point of view of practical use and collecting, are calcareous shells of mollusks. To protect their soft, vulnerable bodies from natural enemies, mollusks secrete a substance consisting mainly of calcium carbonate and hardens into a material similar in density to marble. They acquired this ability in the early periods of the geological history of the Earth, already by the beginning of the Cambrian (570 million years ago). Rocks of this age contain many of their fossilized shells.

Types of shells.

There are five main classes of mollusks: bivalves, gastropods, testapods, spadepods and cephalopods. Representatives of each of them have their own characteristic type of shell.

Bivalve.

Bivalve shells consist of two halves (valves), connected to each other by an elastic ligament and held in a certain position by interlocking teeth. The hinge line, the side on which the valves are connected, is considered superior, or dorsal (dorsal), and the opposite side, where they can diverge, is considered inferior, or ventral (ventral). In some species the valves are identical, while in others they differ slightly in size, shape and color. Oysters, clams, mussels and scallops are all part of the bivalves group.

Gastropods.

The shells of gastropods, unlike bivalves, are solid, i.e. not divided into flaps. Members of this group, often called snails, can be found on land, in fresh water and in the sea. Usually their shells are twisted clockwise around a central axis (column) like a spiral staircase. If you hold such a shell, called right-handed, with the sharp end (top) up, then its “entrance” hole - the mouth - will be on the right. If the mouth is on the left, the shell is called left-handed. At the mouth, there are inner and outer lips, and its lower edge usually bears a projection (anterior canal), which can resemble either a long tube or the curved spout of a teapot. If there are two canals, the second, located in the upper part of the outer lip, is called posterior.

Gastropods move with the help of a muscular outgrowth - the leg. When the animal senses danger, it withdraws its leg into the shell; the mouth is closed by the operculum, a small hard structure attached to the back of the leg. The operculum varies in structure, size and shape (according to the opening being closed) among different species and may resemble a thin disc, button or marble plate.

Each whorl of the shell is called a whorl, and the last and largest is called the trunk whorl. They can be clearly visible, for example in trumpeters, flattened and almost fused in appearance, like cones, or not noticeable at all from the outside, like in cypras.

Armored.

The shells of these mollusks consist of eight overlapping dorsal plates. These animals are also called chitons, because from below, from under the shell, a leathery belt protrudes, reminiscent of the edge of ancient Greek clothing - a chiton. Shellfish usually stay under rocks and in crevices; they are difficult to tear off from the substrate, to which they are firmly attached by the sole of a muscular leg.

Spadefoot.

The shells of these mollusks are slightly curved tubes, reminiscent of elephant tusks in shape. Their length ranges from 2.5 to 12.5 cm; some are white and matte, like chalk, others shine like porcelain.

Cephalopods.

Cephalopods may be the most interesting of mollusks from an evolutionary point of view. Judging by the fossil remains, they once had shells up to 4.6 m long. Most modern cephalopods have only small internal shell vestiges. Squids, cuttlefish, and octopuses belonging to this class are now protected by their powerful tentacles, camouflage coloring and “ink” curtains released into the water. The only living cephalopods with an external shell are representatives of the genus Nautilus. Decoration of any collection - view Nautilus pompilius. Its spiral, iridescent mother-of-pearl shell is composed of a series of chambers and forms a perfect logarithmic spiral; the width of the whorl increases, maintaining a constant ratio to its length. As the body grows, it builds new chambers and moves to live in the last, largest of them.

Shell composition and growth.

As mollusks grow, they secrete a substance that increases the size and thickness of their shells. This secretion, secreted by the fold of skin surrounding the body, called the mantle, consists of calcium carbonate mixed with phosphate and magnesium carbonate. In bivalves, the mantle covers the body from the sides, and in gastropods it forms the fleshy lining of the mouth. The growth lines on bivalves shells run parallel to their outer edge, and in gastropods new whorls are added to the shells.

There are three layers in a mollusk shell. The outer (periostracum) is rough and consists of the organic substance conchiolin; the middle, or porcelain-shaped (ostracum), is formed by small prisms of calcite or aragonite, and the inner (hypostracum) is formed by parallel plates of aragonite and is often mother-of-pearl. The pearlescent iridescent shine is due to translucent layers of calcium carbonate. The shapes of shells and the color of their outer surface are extremely varied. Some are no larger than the head of a pin; they are so small that the beauty of their shape cannot be fully appreciated without a magnifying glass. Others, for example in the giant tridacna ( Tridacna gigas) from the Indian and Pacific Oceans, reach a diameter of 60–120 cm and a weight of 135–180 kg. They gave rise to legends about divers who fell underwater into a trap made from the closed shells of this mollusk.

Spreading.

The modern ranges of approximately 50,000 species of marine mollusks depend on the temperature and salinity of the water, as well as the contours of the primordial oceans. Probably the richest source of shells in the world is a wide belt stretching from the warm waters of East Africa through the Indian Ocean to Australia and the islands of the South Pacific. Many of their best specimens (cyprias, cones, terebras, venerids) are found here - off the African coast between Kenya and Mozambique, in the waters off Queensland (Australia) and in the tropical seas surrounding some islands of Indonesia, the Philippines and the Ryukyu Archipelago.

The second most important is the West Indies region, stretching from Bermuda through the Antilles to Brazil. This area abounds in the shells of molluscs such as Triton's horn, Strombus, Cassis and Fasciolaria. There are several other places in the world where interesting specimens of shell mollusks are found. Since the temperature in the Mediterranean Sea is approximately the same as in the Caribbean, many species of scallops, whelks, fasciolaria and needleworts are found in both these areas. Along the east coast of the United States, you can collect beautiful naticids, cones, anomia and olives, left-handed busicons, as well as strombus and graceful angel's wing bivalves. Two small islands off the west coast of Florida, Sanibel and Captiva, are considered the best shell collection sites in the United States. Off the west coast of the country there are many fairly common species, as well as the rarer abalone and sea cuttings.

There are approximately 50,000 known taxa of freshwater mollusks, primarily classified as bivalves and gastropods. They live not only in rivers and lakes, but also in hot springs, caves, at the base of waterfalls, and even in frozen ponds in polar regions. Most terrestrial mollusks are pulmonate gastropods, i.e. snails with a special breathing apparatus. Their shells are often as brightly colored as those of the most colorful marine species. These snails live among moist vegetation, mainly in trees; one of their most famous species is the grape snail ( Helix aspersa); in France it is considered a delicacy.

Usage.

The history of shell use goes back over 10,000 years. Red cassis from the South Pacific are found in prehistoric Cro-Magnon caves in Europe. Their presence thousands of kilometers from their homeland suggests that they served as money, which means that trade between these widely separated areas inexplicably existed already in the early stages of human history. Prehistoric man undoubtedly used shells as decorations. Shells with sharp edges, such as some common bivalve shells, were used as cutting tools.

Particularly interesting is the role of shells as currency. In the past, such “money” was widespread in America, Asia, Africa and Australia. The most valued in this sense was the cypreya coin ( Cypraea moneta), or cowrie. Even today, on some islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, the shells of another species of cowrie, C., are used as money. annulus. Among the peoples of Central Africa, the possession of bundles of large cowries served as evidence of personal or tribal wealth, and in West Africa these shells were used as payment until the mid-19th century. In some areas of the African continent, for example in the territory of present-day Angola, coins made from the cut shells of the land snail Achatina mint were common ( Achatina monetaria). On the islands north of New Guinea, shells were also often ground to a suitable size for use as currency of various denominations. Until 1882, trade in the Solomon Islands was carried out using such “coins” of a standard shape and a certain size.

Shell money laid the foundation for the North American Indian economy. Shells of spadefoots (for example, sea tooth - Dentalium pretiosum) were used by them as coins long before the emergence of the Hudson's Bay Company. A string of 25 of these large shells was enough to buy a canoe. A remarkable achievement of the “coining” of the American aborigines was the so-called. wampum. It consisted of polished cylindrical pieces of shells of whelks, Mercenaria vulgaris ( Mercenaria mercenaria) and littorina vulgare ( Littorina littorea), strung on leather straps. Typically, this money was made in coastal areas, where the highly prized purple mercenaria shells and giant white whelks were more readily available. From here the ready money was transported deep into the country.

Shells have been used for other purposes for centuries. Collections discovered in Roman dwellings indicate that they were collected already in ancient times. Medieval pilgrims wore the comb of St. James ( Pecten jacobeus) on their hats as a sign that they had crossed the sea and reached the Holy Land. Large shells of cyprians, whelks and other mollusks were often depicted by Renaissance artists. A famous example is the huge comb in Botticelli's painting. Birth of Venus.